SPC 2608 Review Notes for Quizzes
CommunicationA general definition: Any process in which people share information, ideas, and feelings. Process involves not
only spoken and written words (symbols), but also body language, personal mannerisms and style, the
surroundings - anything that adds meaning to a message.
Basic Types of Communication:
1. Intrapersonal - within yourself, personal - It involves thoughts/feelings (Channel is brain).
There is feedback in the sense that we talk to ourself.
Practical applications of intrapersonal communication:
a. adapting to environment.
b. adapting to stress.
c. adapting to individuals.
d. memory.
e. listening.
2. Interpersonal - Communication between two or more people. In interpersonal communication, it is hoped that
participating individuals consider each other as unique individuals, rather than objects (using stereotypical
labeling). Field of experience is necessary for effective interpersonal communication (individuals bring unique
backgrounds and experiences to communication process). Remember: All messages are made up of verbal and
non-verbal symbols.
Small Group Communication - A number of persons communicate with one another often over a span of time,
who are few enough so that each person is able to communicate with all others, not secondhand, but
face-to-face.
3. Public Communication - Face-to-face communication to a large number of people.
4. Mass Communication - 4 Factors:
a. presence of a mass medium (to carry the message between a sender and receiver).
b. delayed feedback - often cannot react immediately to feedback and thus alter message.
However, you reach a large number of people.
c. gatekeeper - anyone who controls the flow of information via a mass medium (e.g., editor, news anchor).
d. physical distance - no direct proximity - thousands of miles could separate sender and receiver.
Self and Communication
1. Self-Concept - conclusions we draw about ourself.
Consists of such diverse elements as the statements we make about ourself, our reaction to ourself when we
look in the mirror, and the things we think we can and cannot do.
a. self-esteem - how much we value ourselves.
The messages we get from others (parents, siblings, friends, teachers, etc.) and the mass media have a lot to do with our self-concept and self-esteem.
Often our self-concept/esteem is very much determined by societal measures - e.g., physical attractiveness
and intellectual ability (Glamour Magazine, SAT Scores are weak measures of worth).
2. Self-Disclosure - How much information we should divulge and how much we should withhold (within a
communication situation).
a. The more we disclose about ourselves, the more we can be supported by others.
b. Self-disclosure also carries the risk of having our self-concept shot down.
c. We tend to disclose certain things about ourselves at different points in a relationship.
d. We self-disclose to:
- to form an impression.
- for self-clarification.
- maintain a relationship.
- enhance a relationship.
e. Self-disclosure must be monitored:
intentions - reasons we are disclosing.
amount - monopolizing a conversation can leave an impression of being self-centered.
depth - how far advanced a relationship is - how much we disclose.
accuracy - sincere and truthful disclosure.
Perceptions of the World
1. Psychological Safety - The approval and support that we get from familiar people, ideas, and situations.
However, in order to grow, people need to abandon some of the safe areas of their lives and take some
psychological risk. This involves taking a chance on something new (e.g. different religions, cultures etc.).
Listening
1. Misconception that hearing/listening are the same thing.
a. Hearing - Physiological response when sound waves hit our eardrum.
b. Listening - Process of attaching meaning to sound waves -
- Hear sounds/sound waves.
- Interpret (understand/don't understand)
- Evaluate (decide how we will use the information)
- Respond (react to what we've heard)
2. Four Types of Listening:
a. Appreciative - Listen for enjoyment; sensory impression (e.g. tone, mood, pitch, style of speaker).
b. Informative - Gain/comprehend information.
c. Therapeutic (empathy) - Listening for the feelings of another person; sounding boards.
d. Critical listening - make a value judgment regarding information received (good/bad, valid/not valid, etc.)
3. Barriers to Effective Listening:
a. Semantic Distractions - Other person (speaker) uses unfamiliar terminology (also language of another
culture).
b. Mental Distractions - Intrapersonal factors - we focus on ourselves, our problems, desires
needs, etc., when speaker is speaking.
c. Physical Distractions - Color/lay out of room, temperature, time of day, NOISE, clothing uncomfortable,
etc.
d. Selective attention - more likely to give attention to someone whose message reflects our own views
(beliefs) than someone whose message opposes them.
e. Stereotyping - prejudging a person (possibly due to group membership or some other characteristic).
Will not listen because we simply do not like the person he/she is.
4. Improving Listening Skills: Commit to listen.
a. Focus on speaker's main idea:
- Content - What is speaker saying?
- Intent - Objective(s) of speaker.
b. Remove physical barriers to listening if possible.
c. Concentrate on the communicator as a person.
- Be open minded!
Verbal Communication
1. Language -
Most basic function of language is to communicate our thoughts (Intrapersonal). Language helps us organize
our thoughts for conveying a message.
2. Semantics - Study of Meaning: (also -Semiotics - study of language systems - our particular focus for our class
discourse).
a. the symbol/sign (e.g. candy) and referent (object in reality) are sometimes different to different people
(e.g. milk chocolate, fudge).
b. denotation - precise or explicit meaning of word (dictionary definition).
c. connotation - feelings or associations we have about a word (suggested or implied meaning of a word).
3. Concrete vs. Abstract Language (words):
a. Abstract - words(s) are usually more ambiguous (e.g., animal). The more abstract a word is, the less control
the speaker exerts over what the audience will think (e.g., the word, candy).
B. Concrete - word(s) tends to be specific or particular, and is more likely to evoke in the minds of the
audience a specific thing from their own experiences. Language is often simple, concise (e.g., Reese's
peanut cup, Hersheys milk chocolate). Sometimes use modifiers to make words more concrete (dog=bull
dog).
4. Direct vs. Indirect Language
a. Direct word(s) - choosing words that the audience is sure to understand (e.g., "dead").
b. Indirect word(s) - is the use of words to avoid stating the socially unacceptable. Family/friends may use
more direct (graphic) language among themselves, but more publicly the language becomes less direct (e.g.,
"bought the farm," "kickin' up daisys," "sleepin' with the fish," etc.) - Euphemisms
5. Avoiding Inappropriate Language -
a. equal and balanced treatment - include women/men in the main thought and expression of a statement
(avoid overuse of "he").
b. avoid stereotyping, and sexist cliches.
c. avoid slang ("Street talk"), jargon, profanity.
6. Working on Communication (three basic questions):
What do you want to say? To whom? For what purpose? (Objective types)
Language Choices -
Go for clarity and vividness (recreate experience for listeners).
Nonverbal Communication
Research has shown that as much as 65% of the meaning we get from a message is communicated nonverbally.
1. Space (Proxemics):
a. Territorial space - defined by physical boundaries; can be concrete (wall) or abstract (perimeter of a beach
towel). Affects the way we communicate with others. (e.g., seats in classroom)
b. Personal space - defined by psychological traits; our imaginary "bubble" around us.
c. Characteristics of space:
1. personal space and territorial space are interrelated.
2. people of the same age and status will approach each other closer physically.
3. we use personal space to communicate friendship; our personal space decreases around friends.
4. various cultures have different expectations of personal space.
5. personal space is greater between males than females.
6. praise lessens personal space; criticism increases it.
7. the setting and topic of a communication encounter will determine the amount of personal space.
8. psychological makeup (individuality) will influence any communication encounter and therefore personal
space.
2. Gestures:
a. Emblems - these are nonverbal acts which have a direct verbal translation or dictionary definition, usually
consisting of a word or two or a phrase (A-OK.; peace).
Emblems are often produced with the hands - but not exclusively (a nose wrinkle may say "I'm disgusted"
To say "I'm helpless", one might turn up both palms or shrug shoulders.
b. Illustrators - Nonverbal acts which are directly tied to or accompany speech - serving to illustrate what is
being said verbally. May be movements which emphasize a word, or present objects.
c. Affect Displays - Facial configurations which display affective states/emotional states (smile, frown,
sadness).
d. Regulators - Nonverbal acts which maintain and regulate the back-and-forth nature of speaking and
listening (head nods and eye behavior). Nodding fast may mean hurry up while nodding slow may mean
keep talking.
e. Adaptors - Nonverbal behaviors are the most difficult to define and involve the most speculation; labeled
adaptors because they are thought to develop in child-hood as adaptive efforts to satisfy needs, perform
actions, manage emotions, or develop social contacts.
3. Using the Body:
a. Posture - Whether you slouch or stand or sit straight communicates a message:
- slouching: disinterest, boredom. (Leaning on podium, crossing legs, swaying, hands in pockets).
- good posture: alert, interested.
b. Facial Expressions
1. some of the oldest, identifiable types of nonverbal communication.
2. reflect emotions and personality.
3. functions of facial expressions:
- open/close channels of communication.
- complement or qualify verbal and/or nonverbal responses.
- replace speech.
- withholders - hide emotions/difficult to read revealers - wear feelings openly.
- substitute expressors - display different facial expressions from what they are feeling.
4. Dress
a. People form impressions about us from the way we dress.
b. Research has proven that how we dress affects our self-concept.
c. Dress appropriately for occasions.
d. Color is a nonverbal communicator.
5. The Voice:
a. Paralanguage (voice characteristics):
1. Characterizers - laughing, sobbing, whispering.
2. Vocal segrates - "shh" "uh" "huh" "um" "oh".
3. Vocal qualities - rhythm/tempo, rate, pitch.
pitch - General rules:
Higher pitch - shows excitement.
Lower pitch - shows control.
6. Do's/Don'ts of Nonverbal Communication:
a. Do:
Use natural gestures.
Maintain good eye contact; look at each person in the room briefly, slowly scan the room from side to
side, looking at each person for a short time.
Know appropriate use of proxemics (space). Convey excitement/interest by appropriate facial gestures
(smile, head nod, etc.).
Plan and practice purposive gestures.
b. Don't:
Fake or use gestures that do not come naturally when speaking.
Do not stare at one person for too long.
Do not invade your audience's space, unless you have informed them (in advance) that you plan to do so.
Do not frown or be apathetic/motionless, etc.
Remember:
Nonverbal communication is often culturally determined.
Nonverbal messages may conflict with verbal messages.
Nonverbal messages are largely unconscious.
Nonverbal communication shows our feelings and attitudes.